OTHER EXPLORERS

   1- Vasco Núñez de Balboa :         He was a pioneer, explorer and Spanish conqueror ruling. It was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from its eastern coast and the first European city to establish a permanent American mainland. In 1500, encouraged by his master and news of the voyages of Christopher Columbus and other navigators to the New World, he decided to enroll in issuing Rodrigo de Bastidas the Caribbean Sea. Following its pilot Bastidas and Juan de la Cosa in 1501 he crossed the coasts of the Caribbean Sea from the east of Panama, through the Gulf of Uraba to Cape de la Vela (now Colombia). The ships finally headed to the Spanish island where one sank. Balboa, with the gains made in this campaign, bought land on the island and lived there several years dealing with farming and raising pigs. But he did not have much luck in this activity: the weather was adverse, because it is an area highly exposed to hurricanes; Island residents were living in poverty, and wild pigs represented a competition for their productos. Balboa began to borrow and finally saw no alternative but to flee the island.

In 1508, King Ferdinand submitted to contest the conquest of the mainland. Two new governorates were created in the lands between the ends of the candle (present Colombia) and thank God (now on the border between Honduras and Nicaragua). The Gulf of Uraba was taken as limit of both governments: Nueva Andalucía east, governed by Alonso de Ojeda, and Veragua to the west, governed by Diego de Nicuesa.

  2- Amerigo Vespucci:  He was a merchant and Florentino cosmographer, naturalized Castilian un 1505, who participated un at least two voyages of exploration to the new world continent that today is called América in his honor. He help important positions in the house of trade in Seville, which was named "Chief Pilot" in 1508; but its universal fame is due to two works published under his name between 1503 and 1505: Mundus Novus and the letter to Soderinni, who attributed a leading role un the discovery of América and its identification as a new continent. For this reason the cartographer Martin Waldseemüllerin his map of 1507 coined the name 'América' un his honor as a designation for the new wold. The story often fanciful and contradictory of his travels have located  one of the most controversial figures of the age of discovery.

  3-Ferdinand Magellan:  It was a military, marine and Portuguese navigator of noble lineage, named by hispanic monarchy advance, commander un chief of the "Army for discovering the spices and knight of the Order of Santiago. 

The service of Charles I, discovered the natural channel navigable today called Strait of Magellan, the first European to go sailing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, previously called South sea. He began the expedition, led to his death by Juan Sebastian Elcano, to achieve the first circumnavigation of the earth un 1522.

  4- Juan Sebastian Elcano:  He was a spanish sailor participated un the first round the world, being at the head of the expedition after the death of Ferdinand Magellan.

THE PRINTING PRESS

La Imprenta Es Un Método mecánico Para La Reproducción de Textos e Imágenes sobre papel, tela u Otros Materiales. En su forma Clásica, Una tinta del consiste en APLICAR, generalmente oleosa, Sobre piezas de metal (Tipos) Para La Transferencia al papel Por pressure. De Aunque comenzo Como tradicional method un, su Trajo application Una revolución cultural.

Más recientemente, el Desarrollo de Diversas Tecnologías ha Llevado un Diferentes Métodos de impresión y de Reproducción.

Los romanos habian Seals Impresos hojas Inscripciones Sobre Objetos de arcilla Alrededor del Año 440 a. C. y C. 430. Entre 1041 y 1048, Bi Sheng Invento en China, habia Donde ya ESCRIBIR UN papel de arroz El Primer Sistema de Tipos Móviles, una base de piezas complejas de porcelana en La que were tallados Caracteres chinos; Este Fue Un Proceso Complejo Por el gran Número de Caracteres Que Se Necesita Para La escritura china. En 1234 Artesanos del reino de Koryo (actual Corea), Conocedores de los Avances chinos con Tipos Móviles, crearon la ONU conjunto de Tipos Móviles de metales Que Prevé impresión moderna, Pero lo utilizó raramente.2 Sin embargo, la impresión moderna no Hasta Creada FUE approximately 1440, con la ayuda de Johannes Gutenberg.

En Europa, los muchas Personas y Poblaciones pretendieron Ser Parte de Este arte; AUNQUE las Opiniónes sugieren Que Fue El Alemán Johannes Gutenberg, las Ideas Que Tenia y la Iniciativa de la ONU uniRSE un equipo de impresores, apoyándole Como el inventor de la tipografía. Hay posterior Documentación atribuye la Invención de aunque, curiosamente, no se Nombra en ningún Gutenberg Conocido impresa.

Dada la controvertida historia Apareció un disputar la gloria del "Padre de la Imprenta" nombres Alemanes Mentelin, Impresora Estrasburgo (1410-1478); Italiano Panfilo Castaldi, Médico y Despues tipógrafo en 1470, otro italiano Llamado Aldus, Lorenzo de Coster de Haarlem (Países Bajos) (1370-1430). Cada uno Tiene Un Monumento en SUS respectivas Localidades; Sin embargo, perdio el pleito Definitivamente.






                                                              

MEDIEVAL INSTITUTIONS IN SPAIN

The list of medieval universities comprises universities  which existed in Europe during the Middle Ages. It also includes short-lived foundations and European educational institutions whose university status is a matter of debate. The degree-awarding university with its corporate organization and relative autonomy is a product of medieval Christian Europe. Before 1500 more than eighty universities were established in Western and Central Europe. During the subsequent Colonization of the Americas the university was introduced to the New World, marking the beginning of its worldwide spread as the center of higher learning everywhere.


There were many institutions of learning (Studium) in the Middle Ages in Latin Europe - cathedral schools, "schools of rhetoric" (law faculties), etc. Historians generally restrict the term "medieval university" to refer to an institution of learning that was referred to as Studium Generale in the Middle Ages.

There is no official strict definition of a Studium generale, the term having emerged from customary usage. The following properties were common among them, and are often treated as defining criteria:[3]

(1) that it received students from everywhere (not merely the local district or region);
(2) That it engaged in higher learning, i.e. that it went beyond teaching the Arts, and had at least one of the higher faculties (Theology, Law or Medicine).
(3) that a significant part of the teaching was done by Masters (teachers with a higher degree)
(4) that it enjoyed the privilege of jus ubique docendi, i.e. masters of that school were entitled to teach in any other school without a preliminary examination.
(5) that its teachers and students were allowed to enjoy any clerical benefices they might have elsewhere without meeting the mandatory residency requirements prescribed by Canon Law.
(6) that it enjoyed some degree of autonomy from local civil and diocesal authorities.

Ranking	Year	Name	Contemporaneous location	Current location	Notes
1	1088	University of Bologna	Holy Roman Empire	Bologna, Italy	The first university in the sense of a higher-learning, degree-awarding institute, the word university having been coined at its foundation.[10]
2	1096-1167 (1248 charter granted)[5]	University of Oxford	Kingdom of England	Oxford, United Kingdom	"Claimed to be the oldest university in the English speaking world, there is no clear date of foundation of Oxford University, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167."[6] Teaching suspended in 1209 (due to town execution of two scholars) and 1355 (due to the St. Scholastica riot), but was continuous during the English Civil War (1642–1651) - the University was Royalist. All Souls College and University College have repeatedly claimed[citation needed] that they own documents proving that teaching in Oxford started in the year 825, but these documents have never seen the public light (allegedly, John Speed dated his famous 1605 Oxford maps based on these documents). However, it was not until 1254 that Pope Innocent IV granted to Oxford the University charter by papal bull ("Querentes in agro").
3	1170 (1200 Charter Granted)	University of Paris		France	The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities. The university of Paris was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars), by contrast with the Bolognese universitas scholarium. The university had four faculties: Arts, Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
4	1204	University of Vicenza	Commune of Vicenza	Vicenza, Italy	Laical studium generale, it was closed early, on 1209.
5	1209 (1231 charter granted)[7]	University of Cambridge	Kingdom of England	Cambridge, United Kingdom	Founded by scholars leaving Oxford after a dispute caused by the execution of two scholars in 1209, and royal charter was granted in 1231.[12] The university takes 1209 as its official anniversary.[13]
6	1212	University of Palencia	Kingdom of León	Palencia, Spain	It was the oldest Studium Generale in the Iberian Peninsule. It disappeared ca. 1264, and its remains transferred toUniversity of Valladolid.
7	1218 (probably older)	University of Salamanca	Kingdom of León	Salamanca, Spain	It is the oldest university in operation in Spain. Although there are records of the University granting degrees many years before (James Trager's People's Chronology sets its foundation date in 1134), it only received the Royal chart of foundation as "Estudio General" in 1218, making it possibly the fourth or even the third oldest European university in continuous operations. However, it was the first European university to receive the title of "University" as such, granted by king of Castile and León Alfonso X and the Pope in 1254. Having been excluded from the University in 1852 by the Spanish government, the Faculties of Theology and Canon Law became the Pontifical University of Salamanca in 1940.
8	1222 (probably older)	University of Padua	Commune of Padua	Padua, Italy	Founded by scholars and professors after leaving Bologna.
9	1224	University of Naples Federico II	Kingdom of Sicily	Naples, Italy	The first public university,[14] founded by Frederick II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
10	1229	University of Toulouse	County of Toulouse	Toulouse, France
11	1240	University of Siena	Republic of Siena	Siena, Italy	Originally called Studium Senese, was founded by Commune of Siena in 1240. In 1321, the studium was able to attract a larger number or pupils due to a mass exodus from the prestigious neighbouring University of Bologna. Closed temporarily in 1808–1815 when Napoleonic forces occupied Tuscany. On November 7, 1990 the university celebrated its 750th anniversary.
12	1241	University of Valladolid	Kingdom of Castile	Valladolid, Spain	One hypothesis is that its foundation is the result of the transfer of Palencia General Survey between 1208 and 1241 by Alfonso VIII, king of Castile, and Bishop Tello Téllez de Meneses.
13	1261	University of Northampton	Kingdom of England	Northampton	The University of Northampton was founded in 1261 by King Henry III. Abolished in 1265.
14	1272	University of Murcia	Crown of Castile	Murcia, Spain	The University of Murcia was founded in 1272 by the King Alfonso X of Castile. It had no continuity after 14th century, until it was re-founded in 1915.[15]
15	1289	University of Montpellier	Lordship of Montpellier,Kingdom of Majorca	Montpellier, France	A bull issued by Pope Nicholas IV in 1289, combines all the long-existing schools, since 1160, into a university.
16	1290	University of Macerata[16]	Papal States	Macerata, Italy	The University of Macerata (Italian: Università degli Studi di Macerata) is a university located in Macerata, Marche, Italy. It was founded in 1290 and is organized into 7 faculties.
17	1290	University of Coimbra[16]	Kingdom of Portugal	Coimbra, Portugal	Begun its existence in Lisbon with the name Studium Generale (Estudo Geral). Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis, the royal charter announcing the institution of the University, was dated 1 March of that year, although efforts had been made at least since 1288 to create this first university in Portugal. The papal confirmation was also given in 1290 (on 9 August of that year), during the papacy of Pope Nicholas IV.
18	1293	University of Alcalá	Crown of Castile	Alcalá de Henares, Spain	The University of Alcalá was founded by King Sancho IV of Castile as Studium Generale in 1293 in Alcalá de Henares. It was granted Papal Bull in 1499, and quickly gained international fame thanks to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros and the production of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible in 1517, which is the basis for most of the current translations. The University moved to Madrid in 1836 by Royal Decree. The Moyano Law of 1857 established Complutense as the sole university in Spain authorized to confer the title of Doctor on any scholar. This law remained in effect until 1969.
19	1300	University of Lleida	Crown of Aragon	Lleida, Spain	Founded in 1300 as Estudi General (Studium Generale), after a 1297 granting Papal bull. It was closed down in 1717 along with the banning of the rest of Catalan universities and the original political institutions of Catalonia. Refounded on December 12, 1991.
20	1303	La Sapienza University of Rome	Papal States	Rome, Italy	Founded by Pope Boniface VIII, but became a state university in 1935. According to the Catholic Encyclopaedia, the university "remained closed during the entire pontificate of Clement VII".
21	1308	University of Perugia	Papal States	Perugia, Italy	Attested by the Bull of Pope Clement V. On May 19, 1355, the Emperor Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor issued a Bull confirming the papal erection and raising it to the rank of an imperial university.
22	1321	University of Florence	Republic of Florence	Florence, Italy	The University of Florence evolved from the Studium Generale, which was established by the Florentine Republic in 1321. The Studium was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349.
23	1336	University of Camerino	Papal States	Camerino, Italy	The great literate and jurist Cino from Pistoia, living in Marche in the years 1319-21, and in Camerino in the spring of 1321, remembers the territory blooming with juridical schools. Camerino has been a center of learning since no later than 1200, offering degrees in civil law, canonical law, medicine, and literary studies. Gregory XI took the decision upon the request of Gentile III da Varano with the papal edict of 29 January 1377, directed to the commune and to the people, authorizing Camerino to confer (after appropriate examination) bachelor and doctoral degrees with apostolic authority.
24	1343	University of Pisa	Republic of Pisa	Pisa, Italy	It was formally founded on September 3, 1343 by an edict of Pope Clement VI, although there had been lectures on law in Pisa since the 11th century. Nowadays is one of the most important universities in Italy.
25	1348	Charles University of Prague	Kingdom of Bohemia	Prague, Czech Republic	Three of four faculties closed in 1419, joined with Jesuit university and renamed Charles-Ferdinand University in 1652, split into German and Czech part in 1882, Czech branch closed during Nazi occupation (1939–1945), German branch closed in 1945.[17]
26	1349	University of Perpignan	Crown of Aragon	Perpignan, France	Founded in 1349 by Peter IV of Aragon, it was closed in 1794. Refounded on 1971, and on 1979 as independent university with the name Université de Perpignan Via Domicia.
27	1356	University of Angers	Charles V of France	Angers, France	Founded in 1356, closed down in 1793, and reestablished in 1971.By 1080, the “Studium” or the School of Angers was already a renowned scholarly institution. It received the title “university” in 1356, and in 1364, Charles V granted the university its autonomy and privileges.
28	1361	University of Pavia	House of Visconti	Pavia, Italy	Closed for short periods during the Italian Wars, Napoleonic wars, and Revolutions of 1848.
29	1364	Jagiellonian University	Kingdom of Poland	Kraków, Poland	Founded by Casimir the Great under the name Studium Generale, and was commonly referred to as the Kraków Academy. The institution's development stalled upon the king's death in 1370; primarily due to a lack of funding. Without a permanent location; lectures were held across the city at various churches and in the Kraków Cathedral School. Further development again resumed in the 1390s, by the initiative of King Władysław Jagiełło and his wifeJadwiga of Poland; at which point the school became a fully functioning university with a permanent location. The university was forcibly shut down during the German Occupation of Poland (1939–1945). The staff was deported toNazi concentration camps, and many of its collections were deliberately destroyed by the occupying German authorities. Within a month after the city's liberation, the university again re-opened; with some of the original pre-war staff who survived the occupation.
30	1365	University of Vienna	Holy Roman Empire	Vienna, Austria	Modelled on the University of Paris.
31	1367	University of Pécs	Kingdom of Hungary	Pécs, Hungary
32	1386	Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg	Holy Roman Empire	Heidelberg, Germany	Founded by Rupert I, Elector Palatine. The oldest in Germany.
33	1391	University of Ferrara	House of Este	Ferrara, Italy	Founded by Marquis Alberto d'Este.
34	1396	University of Zadar	House of Este	Zadar, Croatia	Founded by Raimund de Vineis.
35	1404	University of Turin	Duchy of Savoy	Turin, Italy	Founded by the prince "Louis of Piedmont" during the reign of Amadeus VIII.
36	1409	University of Leipzig	Holy Roman Empire	Leipzig, Germany	Founded when German-speaking staff left Prague due to the Jan Hus crisis.
37	1413	University of St Andrews	Kingdom of Scotland	St Andrews, UK	Founded by a Papal Bull
38	1419	University of Rostock	Holy Roman Empire	Rostock, Germany	During the Reformation, "the Catholic university of Rostock closed altogether and the closure was long enough to make the refounded body feel a new institution".[18]
39	1425	University of Leuven	Duchy of Brabant	Leuven, Belgium	Founded by a Papal Bull.
40	1432	University of Caen	Caen	Caen	Founded by King Charles VI of England during the period of English control of Normandy during the Hundred Years War. When the French regained control of Normandy the University was recognized by French King Charles VII.
41	1434	University of Catania	Kingdom of Sicily	Catania, Italy	The oldest in Sicily. Founded by Alfonso V of Aragon.
42	1441	University of Bordeaux	Kingdom of England	Bordeaux, France	Founded by a Papal Bul.
43	1450[19]	University of Barcelona	Crown of Aragon	Barcelona, Spain	Founded by Alfonso V of Aragon as Estudi general de Barcelona after the unification of all university education. For forty-nine years prior to that foundation, however, the city had had a fledgling medical school founded by King Martin of Aragon, and in the 13th century, Barcelona already possessed several civil and ecclesiastical schools.
44	1451	University of Glasgow	Kingdom of Scotland	Glasgow, UK	Founded by a Papal Bull
45	1456	University of Greifswald	Holy Roman Empire	Greifswald, Germany	Teaching had started by 1436. Founded by initiative of Heinrich Rubenow, Lord Mayor of Greifswald (and first rector), with approval of Pope Callixtus III and Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, under the protection of Wartislaw IX, Duke of Pomerania. Teaching paused temporarily during the Protestant Reformation (1527–39).
46	1457	Freiburg (im Breisgau)		Germany	Teaching starts 1460 (three weeks after the opening of the nearby University of Basel with which it was competing at the time (s. next entry).
47	1459	Basle	City of Basel, located in the Holy Roman Empire, part of the Swiss Confederation after 1501	Switzerland	Established by Papal bull in 1459, the university started teaching in 1460 and has never interrupted its activities since. The Protestant Reformation triggered a crisis during which the university lost part of the students and faculty to its neighbouring rival in Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
48	1459	Ingolstadt		Germany
49	1460	Nantes		France
50	1464	Bourges		France
51	1465	Pressburg		Slovakia
52	1470	Venice		Italy
53	1471	Genoa		Italy
54	1474	Zaragoza	Crown of Aragon	Spain
55	1476	Mainz		Germany
56	1476	Tübingen		Germany
57	1477	Uppsala		Sweden
58	1479	Copenhagen		Denmark
59	1483	Palma, Majorca	Crown of Aragon	Spain
60	1489	Sigüenza	Crown of Castile	Spain
61	1495	Aberdeen		United Kingdom
62	1498	Frankfurt on the Oder		Germany
63	1499	Valencia	Crown of Aragon	Spain

The hundred years war

To expression Hundred Years' War, there arose in the mid-nineteenth century, identifying a series of armed conflicts recorded intermittently, during the fourteenth century and the fifteenth century (1337 - 1453), with the participation of France and England. The long duration of this conflict by the great might of the English on one side and the stubborn French resistance on the other explains. This was the first great European war which caused profound changes in the economic, social and political life of Western Europe. The kingdom of France was supported by the kingdoms of Scotland, Bohemia, Castilla and the papacy of Avignon. England had been allied with Flanders, German kingdoms and Portugal. The dynastic question which unleashed the War of the Hundred Years surpassed the feudal character of military political rivalries of the Middle Ages and frame the content of future confrontations enters the great European monarchies. The War of the Hundred Years Hard 116 years (although there were long periods of ceasefire, truce and peace for economic reasons, politicians and the bubonic plague that occurred in those years)

Causes of the Hundred Years War (1337 - 1453)

a) The possession of vast regions of France by the English crown, which forced France to unify the territory and destroy feudalism, expelling the English.
b) England needed his continental dominions that provided resources for its economy.
c) Claims of the kings of England to the crown of France, due to complex entroques family of the time.

Hundred Years War: You can see four periods:

1. First Period: The start ingles.- victory was claimed Guyenne when Philip VI (1337) and Edward III of England claimed the French crown. This stage concluded after a bloody war with the Peace of Bretigny (1360), under which Edward III renounces the French crown to change the properties of Calais and the territories south of the River Loire.

2. Second Period: The Triumph Frances.- Carlos V, after ensuring internal peace of France, beginning the war against the English, managing to recover almost all the territories ceded in the Peace of Bretigny.

3. Third Period: The Triumph ingles.- Henry V of England restart hostilities against Charles VI of France, whom I defeated and forced to sign the Treaty of Troyes (1420), for which recognized as heir to the French throne Henry V, who had become his son, having contracted this marriage to Catherine, daughter of the French king.

4. Fourth Period: Joan of Arco.- Within two years of the Treaty of Troyes, the signatories were dead kings. The crown of France and England recaayo in Henry VI, one year old, son of Princess Catherine (daughter of the king of France) and Henry V of England.

The French, imbued with nationalist sentiment, proclaimed King Charles VII, Catherine's brother, and continued the struggle for the liberation of France. When the French were being defeated, there arose the figure of Joan of Arc, illiterate woman who, notwithstanding their humble origin, owned a steadfast Christian faith and proven loyalty to the king. She commanded a small army, defeated the English at the siege of Orleans in 1429.

This event exalt the nationalistic spirit of the French, while begat the envy of the Burgundians, who seized the heroin and handed over to the British. They accused her of witchcraft and heresy, which was subjected to the penalty of the fire in the city of Rouen (1430). The war of liberation, initiated by Joan of Arc, continued successfully. 1453, only the British had left the port of Calais, which definitely would lose.

In England, King Henry VI after the defeats in France, he disputed the throne the House of york, giving rise to the Wars of the Roses (1455); supporters of the king, the Lancaster House (Rose Red) and opponents of the king, the house of York (Rosa Blanca), this war lasted thirty years. At the end the crown Henry VII, founder of the Tudor dynasty, who took over the assets of many nobles disappeared and entrench the rule in England he married Elizabeth of York rival house girded.

Consequences of the War of the Century:

Policy Implications:
- Unification of the Netherlands (Flanders)
- Hegemonia maritima de Castilla
- Consolidation of the monarchy especially in England and France, and abandonment of medieval political forms.
- The long period of wars left greatly weakened the French nobility, because, as you were dying (feudal lords) nobles were dying, their fiefdoms were going to rule the King, weakening the feudal system.
- Final national and political unity in England and France.
- The 100 Years War contributed to strengthening the power of the Valois Dynasty in France, with the support of bourgeoisie, strengthening the French royal power, paving the way for absolute monarchies calls.

economic consequences
The conflicts have claimed thousands of deaths on both sides, and the unprecedented devastation of the territories and the paralyzation of agricultural production in France.

Military Implications:
- Replacement of medieval knighthood by the infantry
- Appearance of the artillery: all types of firearms.
- Recruitment of mercenaries and appearance of professional army.

Social consequences:
-The Construction of a national identity among French
- Final demise of feudalism.
- Increasing role of burquesía that quickly growing support in economic and culturally kings.
- We can say that the Hundred Years' War marked the end of Middle Ages and heralds the advent of the modern age.